EXERCISE 2

Memory Chips

Ram Chips- is a type of data storage used in computers. It takes the form of integrated circuits that allow the stored data to be accessed in any order — that is, at random and without the physical movement of the storage medium or a physical

reading head.

Rom Chips-is a computer file which contains a copy of the data from a read-only memory chip, often from a video game cartridge, a computer's firmware, or from an arcade game's main board. The term is frequently used in the context of emulation, whereby older games or computer firmware are copied to ROM files on modern computers and can, using a piece of software known as an emulator, be run on the newer computer.

Prom Memory Chips - Short for programmable read-only memory, a memory chip on which data can be written only once. Once a program has been written onto a PROM, it remains there forever. Unlike RAM, PROMs retain their contents when the computer is turned off.
The difference between a PROM and a ROM (read-only memory) is that a PROM is manufactured as blank memory, whereas a ROM is programmed during the manufacturing process. To write data onto a PROM chip, you need a special device called a PROM programmer or PROM burner. The process of programming a PROM is sometimes called burning the PROM.

Eprom Memory Chips- An EPROM, or erasable programmable read-only memory, is a type of computer memory chip that retains its data when its power supply is switched off. In other words, it is non-volatile. It is an array of floating-gate transistors individually programmed by an electronic device that supplies higher voltages than those normally used in electronic circuits. Once programmed, an EPROM can be erased only by exposing it to strong ultraviolet light. That UV light usually has a wavelength of 235nm (for optimum erasure time) and belongs to the UVC range of UV light. EPROMs are easily recognizable by the transparent fused quartz window in the top of the package, through which the silicon chip can be seen, and which permits UV light during erasing.

EEPROM MEMORY CHIP - Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory, is a non-volatile storage chip used in computers and other devices to store small amounts of volatile (configuration) data. When larger amounts of more static data are to be stored (such as in USB flash drives) other memory types like flash memory are more economical.

Port - is a facility for receiving ships and transferring cargo. They are usually situated at the edge of an ocean, sea, river, or lake. Ports often have cargo-handling equipment such as cranes (operated by longshoremen) and forklifts for use in loading/unloading of ships, which may be provided by private interests or public bodies. Often, canneries or other processing facilities will be located very close by. Harbour pilots , barges and tugboats are often used to safely maneuver large ships in tight quarters as they approach and leave the docks. Ports which handle international traffic will have customs facilities.

Serial Port - A serial port transmit data one bit at a time. Typically on older PCs, a modem, mouse, or keyboard would be connected via serial ports. Serial cables are cheaper to make than parallel cables and easier to shield from interference.







Parallel Port - The parallel port of older PCs could transmit 8 bits of data at a time, so it was faster than the old serial port (just as more traffic can move along a multi-lane highway than can move along a one-lane road). The parallel port was typically used to connect a printer to the computer.




USB Port - USB (Universal Serial Bus) is a newer type of serial connection that is much faster than the old serial ports. USB is also much smarter and more versatile since it allows the “daisy chaining” of up to 127 USB peripherals connected to one port.
USB ports can support the connection of many kinds of devices (keyboard, mouse, printer, audio in/out, external floppy or Zip drives, scanner, flash drive, etc.). Newer PCs and Macs include several USB ports, some often located in handy spots on the front panel of the computer case or the side of the keyboard. USB connections are hot-swappable (they can be connected and disconnected while the devices are turned on; this is not always true for older connection methods).
An updated version, called USB 2.0 has a speed of 480 Mbits/sec, which is 40 times faster than the older USB port’s high-speed mode (the connectors look the same).





Ethernet Port - Connecting your computer to a network requires a network adapter. This circuitry and port could be built into the motherboard (as is often the case in laptops and Macs), or your computer may have a network interface card (NIC) in one of its expansion slots. Your computer also needs the necessary networking software installed.
The most commonly used networking technology is Ethernet (we use it to connect together the PCs, Macs, and server computers on the UNM-LA Local Area Network).











PS/2 Ports - PS/2 ports are special ports for connecting the keyboard and mouse to some PC systems. This type of port was invented by IBM.





Audio Ports - The three small connectors shown at the right are for connecting sound input (from a tape player, for example), sound out (to connect you PC’s sound output to your stereo system of external speakers), and a microphone input port.





Bus Analyzer - is a computer bus analysis tool, often a combination of hardware and software, used during development of hardware or device drivers for a specific bus, diagnosing bus or device failures, or reverse engineering.
A bus analyzer is a type of protocol analyzer, which is designed for use with certain specific parallel and serial bus architectures. It differs from other protocol analyzers which analyze traffic running across non-bus-based mediums ranging from ethernet networks to wireless LANs or PANs.

NETWORK TOPOLOGY

NETWORK TOPOLOGY

Network topology is the study of the arrangement or mapping of the elements (links, nodes, etc.) of a network, especially the physical (real) and logical (virtual) interconnections between nodes [1] [2] [3].
A local area network (LAN) is one example of a network that exhibits both a physical and a logical topology. Any given node in the LAN will have one or more links to one or more other nodes in the network and the mapping of these links and nodes onto a graph results in a geometrical shape that determines the physical topology of the network. Likewise, the mapping of the flow of data between the nodes in the network determines the logical topology of the network. It is important to note that the physical and logical topologies might be identical in any particular network but they also may be different.
Any particular network topology is determined only by the graphical mapping of the configuration of physical and/or logical connections between nodes - Network Topology is, therefore, technically a part of graph theory. Distances between nodes, physical interconnections, transmission rates, and/or signal types may differ in two networks and yet their topologies may be identical[2

RING TOPOLOGY

A local-area network (LAN) whose topology is a ring. That is, all of the nodes are connected in a closed loop. Messages travel around the ring, with each node reading those messages addressed to it. One of the advantages of ring networks is that they can span larger distances than other types of networks, such as bus networks, because each node regenerates messages as they pass through it.

MESH TOPOLOGY

A mesh network is a local area network (LAN) that employs one of two connection arrangements, full mesh topology or partial mesh topology. In the full mesh topology, each node (workstation or other device) is connected directly to each of the others. In the partial mesh topology, some nodes are connected to all the others, but some of the nodes are connected only to those other nodes with which they exchange the most data.
The illustration shows a full mesh network with five nodes. Each node is shown as a sphere, and connections are shown as straight lines. The connections can be wired or wireless.

STAR TOPOLOGY

Star networks are one of the most common computer network topologies. In its simplest form, a star network consists of one central switch, hub or computer which acts as a conduit to transmit messages. If the central node is passive, the originating node must be able to tolerate the reception of an echo of its own transmission, delayed by the two-way transmission time (i.e. to and from the central node) plus any delay generated in the central node. An active star network has an active central node that usually has the means to prevent echo-related problems.
The star topology reduces the chance of network failure by connecting all of the systems to a central node. When applied to a bus-based network, this central hub rebroadcasts all transmissions received from any peripheral node to all peripheral nodes on the network, sometimes including the originating node. All peripheral nodes may thus communicate with all others by transmitting to, and receiving from, the central node only. The failure of a transmission line linking any peripheral node to the central node will result in the isolation of that peripheral node from all others, but the rest of the systems will be unaffected

FULLY CONNECTED TOPOLOGY
A fully connected network is a mesh network in which each of the nodes is connected to each other. A fully connected network doesn't need to use switching nor broadcasting. However, its major disadvantage is that the number of connections grows quadratically with the number of nodes, per formula

and so it is extremely impractical for large networks. A two-node network, one of the most common network types, is technically a fully connected network.

LINE TOPOLOGY

A line can be described as an infinitely thin, infinitely long, perfectly straight curve (the term curve in mathematics includes "straight curves") containing an infinite number of points. In Euclidean geometry, exactly one line can be found that passes through any two points. The line provides the shortest connection between the points.
In two dimensions, two different lines can either be parallel, meaning they never meet, or may intersect at one and only one point. In three or more dimensions, lines may also be skew, meaning they don't meet, but also don't define a plane. Two distinct planes intersect in at most one line. Three or more points that lie on the same line are called collinear.

TREE TOPOLOGY

Also known as a star bus topology, tree topology is one of the most common types of network setups that is similar to a bus topology and a star topology. A tree topology connects multiple star networks to other star networks. Below is a visual example of a simple computer setup on a network using the star topology.

BUS TOPOLOGY

A type of network setup where each of the computers and network devices are connected to a single cable or backbone. Below is a visual example of a simple computer setup on a network using the bus topology.